Fabric Guide

Your Evidence-Based Guide to Truly Organic Cotton, Polyester Safety, Bamboo vs Eucalyptus Fabrics, C0 DWR Coatings, Dyes, and More

Dr. Meg Christensen is the founder of Interior Medicine, a physician-created resource on non-toxic home products and household exposures. Her layer-by-layer analysis of materials and products draws on her background in medicine, biochemistry, epidemiology, and clinical research.

Published March 2021 | Updated April 2026

What This Guide Covers

Table of Contents

Understanding Fabric Certifications

Synthetic and Semi-Synthetic Fabrics Explained

Chemicals in Fabric Processing

New Fabric Technologies and Safety Concerns

Fabric Rating Scales

These scales are a summary of all the information below. They also keep me consistent and unbiased as I rate and rank products for their potential impact on your health, and they’re meant to organize the information in a straightforward way for you, too. Your situation and risk tolerance may differ— these are guides, relative and informed by my stance on the Precautionary Principle, not absolute rules.

Having two scales captures a more complete picture of a fabric's health for humans by considering two things: first, what the starting material was, and then, how it was processed. Keep reading for the full breakdown on the reasoning behind these scales, and how to make smart decisions about upholstery, curtains, sheets, and blankets in your home.

Fiber Types

Fiber Processing

How and why I use the words non-toxic, chemical-free, toxin, and toxic

I use the words non-toxic, chemical, toxin and toxic, even though there is no agreed-upon definition of the term non-toxic, and that everything, even water, is made of chemicals, so nothing is truly chemical-free. Likewise, toxin refers to a natural substance like a plant poison or venom, whereas toxicant is a more accurate term for the chemicals in products that have a negative health impact. I recognize that something that is toxic does not automatically make it a health risk.

I choose to use these scientifically inaccurate words anyway purely for practical purposes, for now. This is because these words are currently the most culturally agreed-upon, descriptive, and accessible terms that allow people to find the information they’re looking for.

In short, “non-toxic” is shorthand for a complicated problem. I’ll update my terminology if this changes!

Understanding Fabric Certifications

What are third-party fabric certifications? Why are they important?

Third-party certification means that an independent group that didn't make the product has reviewed, tested, and verified the claims that the company making the product has made. For fabrics, a third party may test the product for all ingredients used throughout the entire process (like GOTS), or just for dangerous chemicals in the finished product (like OEKO-TEX).

Third-party certifications protect you from healthwashing and greenwashing. Just like greenwashing makes products appear better for the Earth than they really are, some companies intentionally make their products seem healthier for people than they really are, too.

Because the fabric processing industry is so chemically intensive, and because there is so much health (and green) -washing in it, there are multiple third-party certification groups addressing the problem. Unlike for some of the other materials I rate on this website, I don't have to start from scratch when it comes to fabric safety, so I rely on these well-respected certifications heavily.

What does GOTS certified mean?

GOTS is short for the Global Organic Textile Standard.

It is the gold standard third-party certification for organic fabrics made from natural fibers like wool, cotton, linen, and hemp.

Fabric with the GOTS-certified organic label means that at least 95% of the starting fibers are certified organic, and ensures that the fabric remains healthy throughout the entire manufacturing process. This means the dyes and other chemicals used are safer for human and ecological health than standard fabric processing methods. No harmful finishes may be added to the final product.

GOTS certification covers everything from fiber farming to dyeing to finishing, making it the most comprehensive organic fabric certification available. This is especially important for bedding—sheets, pillowcases, and duvet covers you sleep on for 8+ hours every night. Shop GOTS-certified organic bedding.

What is OCS certified?

OCS stands for the Organic Content Standard. It is a third-party certification by the Textile Exchange that is related to the Responsible Down Standard and the Global Recycled Standard. It has two levels: OCS100 means the fiber is at least 95% certified organic, and OCS Blended means that at least 5% of the material is. Like USDA organic, it's useful for certifying that the fibers themselves are grown organically in agriculture, but it doesn't address the chemical processing afterward. Unlike USDA Organic certification, it is focused on textile products and other consumer goods, rather than food.

If you get something made with OCS certification, make sure it's also OEKO-TEX certified, ensuring that the chemicals used in processing are minimal and safe for humans.

What is BCI cotton? Is Better Cotton Initiative safe?

Short for Better Cotton Initiative, BCI cotton is slightly better than conventionally processed cotton. The most toxic fertilizers and pesticides used to grow the fiber are banned, though not all of them. It is also theoretically better for workers and their wages, but it does not cover processing chemicals or what is left in the final product, like GOTS or OEKO-TEX does. This is an interesting deep dive into it. I consider it standard processed cotton.

Is USDA organic fabric safe? Is USDA organic cotton non-toxic?

No. USDA Organic applies to how the crop is grown, but not to what happens afterward. While fabric grown without pesticides is certainly a good thing, USDA organic cotton can easily have chemicals added to it during the manufacturing process. This certification applies better to food than to textiles.

For truly non-toxic organic fabric, look for GOTS certification, which covers both organic farming and safe processing.

What is OEKO-TEX certification?

OEKO-TEX certification applies to the finished product only, and is for both natural and synthetic textiles. Organic fibers, as well as man-made fabrics like polyester can both qualify, depending on what chemicals, and how much of them, are left in the final product. It does allow for some harmful chemicals, but in much lower quantities than are used in standard textile processing. You can see their limits, which are updated annually, here.

OEKO-TEX tests for over 1,000 harmful substances, including pesticides, formaldehyde, heavy metals, phthalates, and flame retardants in finished fabric products. This makes it essential for items like curtains and window treatments that may otherwise contain flame retardants, or pillows where you're breathing near the fabric all night.

What is OEKO-TEX Class I?

OEKO-TEX has four product classes: I, II, III, and IV. Class I products have met the strictest requirements and limits, and are certified to be safe for babies and toddlers to touch. Babies and toddlers are more vulnerable to harmful exposures because their detoxification systems aren't fully developed, they engage in hand-to-mouth behavior more often, and their cells are dividing rapidly as they grow, meaning they are more susceptible to mutagenic exposures.

Class II means direct skin contact is safe for adults, and applies to textiles like sheets and pillowcases. Class III and IV are still much safer for you than standard fabric processing—I really want to emphasize that!—and are reserved for items without direct skin contact, decorations, and home textiles you don't touch very often (like curtains, for example).

What is MADE SAFE certified?

MADE SAFE certification has 15,000 chemicals on their banned/restricted list, which is based on a combination of European Union standards, the Red List, and other international agencies setting standards for products better for human health. It applies to fabrics and many other consumer goods, like cleaning products. So, while OEKO-TEX "only" has 1,000 banned substances, it's also primarily focused on textiles. It's easier to get to 15,000 if you're including the many chemicals potentially present in cleaning liquids and other things, too. So, this isn't a direct comparison.

The list isn't a full ban. They state that "Some substances may have category specific allowances or technically unavoidable content, in which case either additional testing or threshold requirements may apply" here, but these limits aren't published, nor is the list.

The transparency that GOTS, OEKO-TEX, and other certifying bodies have is important, so you know exactly what the limits are. While I'm sure that a MADE SAFE product is safer than one without testing, I now rate it as "OK" until the limits and list are more transparent.

What is GRS certified?

GRS stands for Global Recycled Standard and is a third-party certification set by the Textile Exchange. This is important because polyester that comes from recycled plastic water bottles can have a lot of added processing chemicals. The GRS helps ensure that chemicals with harmful potential aren't allowed to be used.

GRS certification is essential for recycled polyester fabric to confirm it's been processed safely and doesn't contain harmful additives.

GOTS vs OEKO-TEX: What's the difference? Which is better?

GOTS organic means a higher standard of health than OEKO-TEX, because it requires that organic and safe ingredients are used throughout the entire process, from growing the fiber to dyeing it, to finishing and selling it.

OEKO-TEX certification applies to the finished product only, and applies to both natural and synthetic textiles. Organic fibers, as well as man-made fabrics like polyester can both qualify, depending on what chemicals, and how much of them, are left in the final product. It does allow for some harmful chemicals, but in much lower quantities than are used in standard textile processing. You can see their limits, which are updated annually, here.

For the safest natural fiber fabric, choose GOTS. For safe synthetic fabrics or when GOTS isn't available, OEKO-TEX is an excellent alternative.

GOTS vs OCS: What's the difference?

GOTS is a higher standard of health than OCS because it requires safe processing throughout the entire manufacturing chain. OCS is still a good thing, but has slightly different primary goals—namely, increasing organic agriculture.

OCS certifies organic fiber content but doesn't regulate what chemicals are used during fabric processing. GOTS covers both organic content and safe processing.

MADE SAFE vs OEKO-TEX: Which should I choose?

OEKO TEX. OEKO-TEX "only" has 1,000 banned substances, compared to MADE SAFE’s 15,000, but it's primarily focused on fabrics and textiles, and has better transparency.

It's easier to get to 15,00 if you're including the many chemicals potentially present in cleaning liquids and other things, too. So, this isn't a direct comparison.

Neither OEKO TEX or MADE SAFE are full bans on chemicals. MADE SAFE states that, "some substances may have category specific allowances or technically unavoidable content, in which case either additional testing or threshold requirements may apply" here, but these limits aren't published, nor is the list. OEKO TEX, on the other hand, has their list published with exact limits, and updates it every year.

While I suspect that a MADE SAFE product is safer than one without any certification, I now rate it (jump to see rating scales at the top) as "OK" until the limits and list are more transparent.

For fabric specifically, I recommend prioritizing OEKO-TEX certification due to its transparency and textile-specific focus.

Synthetic and Semi-Synthetic Fabrics Explained

What is plant-based polymer fabric? What is bioplastic fabric?

Also known as bioplastics, plant-based plastic, or semi-synthetics, plant-based polymer fabrics are all made with plastic threads made from vegetables or trees. Small molecules from starchy foods, like corn, sugarcane, potatoes, or eucalyptus trees and other wood fibers, are extracted, then reacted in a factory with other chemicals to make polymers—the long chains of plastic that can be woven into fabrics, just like polyester or polypropylene.

What is PLA fabric?

PLA stands for polylactic acid, and is one of the most popular bioplastics available currently. It is derived from fermented plant starch like sugarcane or corn and turned into PLA, which is very similar to polyester, but made from plants instead of petroleum.

PLA fabric is considered a semi-synthetic, plant-based alternative to petroleum-based polyester.

Is PLA safe? Is PLA fabric toxic?

It depends on how it's processed and what is mixed in with it—A PLA with OEKO-TEX certification helps ensure it is safer for human health and that harmful chemicals haven't been added. Jump down to see more about how fabrics are processed.

What is viscose fabric?

Viscose is an example of a plant-based polymer fabric. It is made from cellulose that comes from wood pulp. The cellulose is extracted and is heavily processed with various chemicals, and can be energy and water-intensive. It's certainly better for people and the earth than a petroleum-based fabric, but still isn't as healthy as a truly natural fabric.

Viscose fabric falls into the semi-synthetic category—neither fully natural nor fully synthetic.

What is rayon fabric? What is Tencel fabric?

Like viscose, rayon is a plant-based polymer fabric, considered to be "semi-synthetic." Tencel is a brand of rayon. Instead of the cellulose starting material coming from wood pulp, Tencel or rayon is made from cellulose that comes from other plants—from eucalyptus, bamboo, soy, or cotton. The cellulose is extracted and a solvent is added to make it liquid, then it's formed into fibers. It requires less pesticides and water than conventional cotton production and is certainly better for people and the earth than a petroleum-based fabric, but still isn't as healthy as a truly natural fabric from a material perspective. However, it is very breathable and has good moisture-wicking properties, so can support healthy sleep.

Is viscose toxic? Is rayon toxic? Is viscose safe?

They are both certainly better for people and the earth than a petroleum-based fabric, but their overall health will depend on how they are processed and if harmful chemicals are added in. Looking for MADE SAFE or OEKO-TEX certification can help ensure they are safer fabrics.

Without third-party certification, viscose and rayon may contain processing chemicals that are harmful to human health.

Are plant-based polymers healthier than petroleum-derived fabrics? Is bioplastic fabric safer than polyester?

They are imperfect, but yes. Bioplastics can be processed with the same chemicals as regular plastics, leaving behind impurities like antimony on the final product. Flame retardants and plasticizers can be added to the final product, too, just like regular plastic fabrics. And, bioplastic is still new enough that there are still very few studies on its safety. On the other hand, using plants means less petroleum refining, which is a major cancer risk to workers in refineries.

What are petroleum-derived polymer fabrics? What are synthetic fabrics?

Synthetic "fabrics," come from petroleum, a fossil fuel. The petroleum is refined and then reacted with chemicals to make long chains of plastic that can be woven into fabrics, or made into non-woven plastic sheets. There are a few main types that show up in home furnishings: polyester (PET), polypropylene, and PVC.

What is polypropylene fabric?

Polypropylene fabric is made by starting with rigid polypropylene, a hard plastic like what a patio chair is made of, for example. The basic production of the fiber version of polypropylene involves forming a chain of propylene molecules, filtering it, then reducing it to a powdered resin. At this point, various additives, particularly UV stabilizer chemicals, are added to the resin to prevent light and heat degradation. Antioxidants and colorants are also commonly incorporated during fiber production to improve weather resistance, thermal stability, and dyeability. If the final product needs to be fire resistant, this is the point at which flame retardants are mixed in, too. Other additives that are proprietary may be incorporated as well.

The mixture is melted down and spun into fibers. The fibers are woven into a sheet of “fabric.”

In the home, polypropylene fabric is used for upholstery and carpeting most often. It is completely unable to absorb water and repels oil, making it useful as a waterproof fabric that doesn’t require PFAS. It also resists bleach, allowing colored polypropylene fabrics to be cleaned with bleach without color changes.

Is polypropylene safe? Is polypropylene fabric toxic?

The safety of polypropylene depends significantly on the additives present in the final product, whether or not you will be exposed to them, and in what amounts. If the fabric is embedded inside of mattress springs, and has OEKO TEX certification, your exposure risk is very low. But, if it’s used as the upholstery on your couch, without any health-forward certifications, you will have a higher exposure to polypropylene and any additives that leach from it.

Research on polypropylene medical masks found a surprising number of additives present: inner layers had antimicrobials and flavorings, while middle and outer layers contained antioxidants, plasticizers, and lubricants. Similarly, A 2020 study analyzing polypropylene make-up found common additives including antioxidants, UV stabilizers and absorbers, thermal stabilizers, lubricants, plasticizers, and flame retardants, and some of these additives or their degradation products may present health safety concerns. These studies are interesting, though of course, don’t apply directly to furniture upholstery.

While polypropylene itself is generally considered a relatively stable plastic, the lack of transparency in polymer formulations makes it difficult to assess the risk associated with these materials, and more disclosure is needed to properly evaluate safety. The environmental impact is also concerning—polypropylene is petroleum-derived, toxic during production, and will not biodegrade for hundreds of years, contributing to microplastic waste.

For safer polypropylene textiles, look for OEKO-TEX or MADE SAFE certification, which test for harmful additives in finished products. You can also look for food-grade polypropylene, which is obviously not specific to home products but does mean that it is FDA-approved to not leach harmful chemicals above certain limits when exposed to high heat, acidity, or microwaving. It’s very hard to interpret these limits, so take this with a grain of salt and again, look for OEKO TEX certification which will mean the product has been tested specifically for textile contact for human health.

What is olefin fabric? Is olefin the same as polypropylene?

Olefin is a word for a large class of synthetic fibers called polyolefins, which includes both polypropylene and polyethylene as the dominant commercial types.

In the fabric and upholstery industry, the term polypropylene is used more often than olefin.

Toxic Chemicals in Fabric Processing

How is fabric processed? What chemicals are used in fabric manufacturing?

This comprehensive guide about textile production is where I sourced information to create this summary about the chemicals used in fabric processing below:

➜ Fiber creation: If grown conventionally, pesticides and fertilizers are used to grow the plant. Both organically grown and regular fibers can have acids, scouring chemicals, and other processing agents used to wash them. If synthetic, petroleum and catalysts are used.

➜ Fabric weaving: Spinning oils, lubricants, and fiber-strengthening chemicals are added to turn the fibers into sheets of fabric.

➜ Cleansing: Detergents, solvents, bleaches, acids, and enzymes are used to remove chemicals from previous steps, make the fabrics lighter, or prepare them to accept dyes in the next step.

➜ Dyeing: Azo dyes, binders, plasticizers, PVC, and other polymers (plastics) are used in this step to make the dyes stick to the surface of the fabric.

➜ Finishing: Chemical treatments are added to make the fabric perform a certain way. Formaldehyde resins offer wrinkle-resistance, other resins work for anti-pilling, PFAS for stain-resistance, polyglycols for anti-pilling, acrylates or PVC with plasticizers for protective coatings, antimicrobials, and flame retardants for fire resistance.

Not every chemical is bad, and this isn't intended to be scary. The purpose is to illuminate how intensive the process of fabric making is and enhance respect for the difficult job that OEKO-TEX, GOTS, and other certifications cover.

Why is there BPA in fabric? Is BPA in polyester?

Yes, some fabrics, including polyester, have BPA in them. This is because BPA not only makes polyester more flexible, but it's also useful in making fabric colorfast—meaning it holds onto its dye and looks brighter and more colorful for longer. You might remember the 2023 news about high levels of BPA is in socks, sports bras, and other synthetic clothing. The upholstery industry is no different.

BPA does get into our bodies mostly by ingesting it, but it's also absorbed through the skin. The amount you absorb through skin is lower than what you ingest orally, but when it travels through your skin, it’s absorbed to your systemic circulation (bloodstream) instead of being processed first by your GI and liver where it is inactivated. A human study found that the proportion of free, unconjugated BPA in blood was about 15 times higher after dermal exposure than after oral exposure at comparable doses, meaning more of what crosses your skin reaches circulation in its active form.

Free BPA is the biologically active form, the one that interacts with estrogen receptors. BPA is a well-characterized endocrine disruptor with the strongest evidence in reproductive and developmental endpoints.

Are flame retardants in fabric dangerous? Why are flame retardants in fabric bad?

Flame retardants are a huge group of chemicals. The earliest versions were phased out when it was discovered that they were harmful to human health. The substitutions have also had issues, and while I won’t go into every single type and class of flame retardant used in the past, there is a long list of health concerns associated with many of them including cancer, allergies, asthma, fetal development issues, and neurodevelopmental defects. That’s still important because the production of PBDEs, one of the major offending classes, didn’t start being phased out until 2004. Many people still have items from 2004 and PBDEs accumulate in bodies and in the environment for years.

The flame retardants most commonly added to fabric today are organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and the newer brominated flame retardants (BFRs). They’re in upholstery and textiles like drapes and curtains and because they’re not a part of the fiber, they fall out into household dust over time, an important route of exposure for us. Early research suggests OPFRs may affect bone and brain health, and BFRs continue to show endocrine-disrupting effects in studies, though the evidence is less developed than it is for the older classes they replaced. That doesn’t mean they’re off the hook— as evidence develops, they could be just as bad as their predecessors. It’s still too early to tell, but considering the past, and that we are still getting the full picture of the consequences of the older classes, I am quite cautious about chemical flame retardants as a whole.

Why is there formaldehyde in fabric? Is formaldehyde in wrinkle-free fabric?

Formaldehyde coatings are added to make fabrics "wrinkle-free" or "wrinkle-resistant." Formaldehyde is a known carcinogen, and can also cause rash. Companies are not required to disclose upfront whether their product contains formaldehyde, and you need to specifically ask. Because curtains and bedding are often treated with formaldehyde resins for wrinkle-resistance, choosing certified options protects your indoor air quality. Shop formaldehyde-free curtains and GOTS-certified bedding."

Why are there PFAS in fabric? What fabrics contain PFAS?

PFAS chemicals are added to textiles to make them water or stain- resistant.

But, PFAS are linked with lowered immune function, metabolic issues, reduced fertility, and a host of other health problems. They are also "forever chemicals," meaning they do not break down in the environment. Companies are not required to disclose whether their product contains PFAS.

Water-resistant and stain-resistant fabrics are the most likely to contain PFAS, unless specifically certified PFAS-free. This is especially common in upholstery, where performance fabrics are routinely treated with PFAS to resist spills and stains. PFAS is the umbrella term for thousands of types of these chemicals, so notice if a company only says that they are “PTFE and PFOA” free— that’s often a red flag that they’re using other classes of PFAS.

What are azo dyes?

Azo dyes are still the most common type of dye used in fabric manufacturing— 60-70% of textiles colorants are azo dyes! They’re inexpensive, produce consistent colors, are easy to work with, so despite the fact that many are known to cause health issues, and many are suspected to, we continue to use them, especially in countries outside of the EU. There are hundreds of types of azo dyes, and the health risks are different for each type.

Why are azo dyes bad?

Azo dyes themselves are not as bad as what happens to them as they break down. Bacteria in sweat can break azo dyes down into compounds called aromatic amines, some of which are carcinogenic, some of which cause skin sensitization, and most of which we don’t have complete toxicity data on, or the health evidence is still mixed for.

Can azo dyes cause cancer?

Concerns about azo dye carcinogenicity started back in the 1930s, when certain azo derivatives were found in animal studies to cause liver and bladder tumors. Germany banned certain azo dyes in consumer goods in 1994, and the EU now bans azo dyes that release any of 22 known carcinogenic aromatic amines from clothing textiles. The US has no equivalent regulation.

Does OEKO TEX ban azo dyes?

Azo dyes are especially useful for synthetic fabrics like polyester, nylon, and acrylic, and since OEKO TEX applies to synthetic fabrics, it’s a good question. The answer is, it is not a full ban, but OEKO TEX restricts the same 22 carcinogenic aromatic amines that the EU does, and also restricts the allergenic dyes that are associated with allergic contact dermatitis. It does not restrict all 800+ azo dyes, but is still a higher standard than US regulations and a step toward safety.

Does washing fabric remove chemicals?

No, not completely. This research study from 2015 assessed the textile processing chemicals left on 60 different clothing garments before and after washing.

Before washing, thousands of chemical compounds were found using gas and high-performance liquid chromatography (laboratory methods of separating and identifying specific chemicals.) They found more chemicals in polyester and other synthetic garments compared to clothing made with cotton and other natural materials.

Concentrations of the chemicals did decrease after washing, but it varied significantly by chemical and fabric type. Some of the chemicals used in fabric processing stay on the fabric longer than you’d like. Some is washed away, and some comes into contact with your skin.

It’s absolutely a good idea to wash fabric before use— it does remove some of the issues, though not all of them. But, whenever possible, this is why it's important to choose fabric that is grown and processed organically, or at least has declared the ingredients used in its creation.

If you've purchased a water-resistant coat, which are made waterproof by treatment with PFAS, it will stay waterproof for a few washes before you start to notice that it's less effective. The same concept goes for dyes; over time, dyes are released and your clothes become less vibrant. Many textile dyes, of course, have health effects, as well.

How can I remove PFAS from clothing? Does washing remove PFAS from fabric?

It’s very hard. PFAS are known as forever chemicals because they are so resistant to breaking down, and even if they do, they just turn into smaller versions— shorter chain PFAS instead of longer chain PFAS. Research on PFAS fabrics (also labeled as DWR-treated fabrics) shows that while some PFAS do wash out into laundry wastewater (which is its own environmental concern), washing doesn't meaningfully reduce your exposure — and in some cases, aging and washing actually increase the concentration of certain PFAS breakdown products detectable in the fabric. PFAS are designed to survive dozens of industrial-grade washes. A single home laundry cycle barely makes a dent on the PFAS that remain available for skin contact.

Are there laundry detergents that remove PFAS from fabric?

No, none exist yet. In the meantime, choose PFAS-free laundry detergents and reduce the number of PFAS-containing items you purchase.

Does washing remove formaldehyde from fabric?

If you've ever gotten a rash after wearing a new wrinkle-free shirt, it may have been due to formaldehyde finish that’s added to make the shirt wrinkle free.

The bad news is, wrinkle-free shirts don’t stay wrinkle free, but the good news is your health benefits. Washing does remove formaldehyde from fabric. Multiple sources estimate that a single wash removes around 60% of formaldehyde from new fabric. This study found that all of it is washed away, which is great news.

Some residual formaldehyde may remain after one wash, particularly in heavily treated wrinkle-resistant fabrics, so you may benefit from washing more than once.

New Fabric Technologies and Safety Concerns

What is C0 DWR? What does C0 DWR mean on fabric?

C0 DWR stands for Durable Water Repellent made with zero fluorinated carbon. It's a chemical finish applied to textiles to make them stain-resistant and water-resistant without using PFAS. Unlike C6 and C8 DWR finishes that contain PFAS (fluorinated chemicals linked to serious health problems), C0 formulations are PFAS-free alternatives.

C0 DWR is used on performance fabrics including upholstery, outdoor textiles, and water-resistant home goods.

What is C0 DWR made of? What chemicals are in PFAS-free water repellent fabric?

The exact ingredients remain undisclosed by most fabric manufacturers—even the companies using these textiles often don't have access to the complete formula.

Since research has revealed the harmful effects of PFAS, fabric manufacturers have been developing multiple PFAS-free formulations for water and stain resistance. These alternatives are generally described as plant-based or seed-based and typically carry OEKO-TEX certification, but specific ingredient lists are rarely published. Crypton Home has a Health Product Declaration for their PFAS-free performance fabric, which represents progress toward transparency, though most ingredients in their stain-repellent treatment remain proprietary.

This lack of transparency exists because of trade secrets and competitive pressures in developing new technologies—particularly now, when multiple companies are racing to create the best PFAS alternative. However, the secrecy has raised concerns about "regrettable substitutions"—the possibility that in 20 years we may discover these PFAS-free options carry unforeseen health risks of their own.

Is plant-based stain repellent safe? Are PFAS-free water repellent fabrics non-toxic?

Possibly! As explained above, the exact ingredients in these formulations remain proprietary. The positive signs include: they're plant-based, PFAS-free, and typically OEKO-TEX certified, which tests for over 1,000 harmful substances in finished textiles.

If you're still concerned about C0 DWR or other PFAS-free water-repellent treatments, you can minimize direct skin contact by using protective covers on furniture, or choose untreated natural fabrics like organic cotton, linen, or wool without any water-resistant finishes.

Is antimicrobial fabric toxic? Are antibacterial towels safe?

Antimicrobial treatments, including triclosan and quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs, or “quats”) are added to fabrics to prevent odor and bacterial growth, but the evidence we have so far is that they’re neither effective nor proven safe. Ironically, they are contributing to antibiotic resistance, and making bacteria more of a problem for people than it already is.

On their effectiveness: the FDA reviewed the most widely used chemical antimicrobial, triclosan, and found it was no more effective than regular soap and water at preventing infection, then banned it from consumer wash-off products in 2016. But, it remains in textiles like antimicrobial towels, upholstery, curtains, sheets, carpets, and rugs.
On triclosan safety: triclosan is a documented endocrine disruptor in animals — multiple studies have found it interferes with their thyroid hormones and reproductive hormones. It’s been detected in human urine, blood, and breast milk across all age groups, though evidence about its endocrine disrupting effects in humans is still mixed and under investigation. There is also documented concern about antibiotic resistance: triclosan exposure can contribute to antibiotic resistance, meaning bacteria that adapt to triclosan also become harder to treat with certain antibiotics.
On QAC safety: Quaternary ammonium compounds are now widely used in antimicrobial fabrics as a triclosan alternative, and carry their own concerns including dermal and respiratory effects, developmental and reproductive toxicity, disruption of lipid homeostasis, mitochondrial impairment, and growing evidence of antibiotic cross-resistance by the same mechanism as triclosan.

The antibiotic resistance concern applies across antimicrobial fabric treatments generally, not just these two. Widespread low-level exposure to antimicrobials in everyday products creates bacterial resistance, which then threatens the effectiveness of antibiotics when they’re needed in medical settings.

In short, antimicrobial fabric doesn't protect you from pathogens any more than washing regularly does, but it does add health risks. It’s still allowed because it’s so hard to prove that this antimicrobial towel caused this person’s cancer, for example — very similar to the reasons cigarettes were so hard to regulate.

Is nanosilver fabric safe? Is silver-infused fabric toxic? Is graphene fabric safe?

Nanosilver and graphene are both nanochemicals, and they’re sometimes added to fabrics for antimicrobial and odor-resistance. The problem is, nanochemicals are so small, they can cross through our cell walls and even through our blood-brain barrier. The technology as a whole is very new, and we are just beginning to learn how it might affect us.

Studies show that nanosilver does leach from fabric during wear, especially when you sweat, and does reach skin. A 2024 study found that nanosilver releases from fabric during wear, especially when you sweat, and that the safety threshold for nanosilver skin exposure is low enough that exercising in nanosilver-treated clothing could push you past it.

Most of the other research comes from from animal and lab studies, which show concerning effects at higher doses, but we just don't yet have enough good studies on humans, especially for touching textiles. The EU has already restricted nanosilver and other nanomaterials based on what we know so far. Widespread use of silver as an antimicrobial in consumer products may contribute to microbial resistance, which matters for medical applications of silver.

The antimicrobial benefit in fabrics is also questionable. Textile researchers have pointed out that lab conditions for testing antimicrobial fabrics don't reflect real-world wear, and evidence that nanosilver-treated clothing meaningfully reduces odor or bacterial exposure compared to regular washing is limited.

Until we have better human safety data, I'd avoid it, especially in items with prolonged or frequent skin contact like bedding or hand towels.

a person holding a beige linen blackout curtain, showing the back side of the curtain which has a non toxic polyester blackout lining

Find Safer Fabrics by Product Type

Close-up of a neatly made bed with an organic pillow and matching organic bed sheet, with a green nightstand beside it, holding a vase of white flowers, two books, and a mirror.

Non-Toxic Blackout Curtains

Organic Bedding

green and white striped carpet with a bed on it

Certified Mattresses

Non-Toxic Area Rugs

Learn ➜ Material Health Guides ➜ Fabric